There are five elements in group IVA of the periodic table, i.e., carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn) and lead (Pb), of which Si, Ge, and Sn can be used as alloying-type electrode materials for sodium-ion batteries. Pb is also capable of alloying with sodium, but it is generally ruled out as the cause of toxicity. In recent years, materials based on Si, Ge, and Sn have been intensively exploited as sodium anodes because of their abundant resource and large capacity with reasonable working voltages. However, successful deployment of these anode materials needs to overcome kinetic and thermodynamic issues related to poor electrochemical activity, particle pulverization associated with large volume swelling, and formation of unstable solid-electrolyte interphase. A diversity of material strategies has been employed to address these difficulties, mainly leveraging on the knowledge recently advanced for lithium anodes. This review highlights such issues and provides valuable insights for possible solutions, which serves as a guide and inspiration for future material innovation for rechargeable batteries.
the National Natural Science Foundation of China(51672182,51772197)
the Thousand Young Talents Plan
the Jiangsu Natural Science Foundation(BK20151219)
the Key University Science Research Project of Jiangsu Province(17KJA430013)
the 333 High-Level Talents Project in Jiangsu Province
the Six Talent Peaks Project in Jiangsu Province
and of the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions(PAPD)
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51672182, 51772197, 51872192), the Thousand Young Talents Plan, the Jiangsu Natural Science Foundation (BK20180002, BK20151219), the Key University Science Research Project of Jiangsu Province (17KJA430013), the 333 High-Level Talents Project in Jiangsu Province, the Six Talent Peaks Project in Jiangsu Province, and of the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1
Gravimetric and volumetric capacity of Si, Ge and Sn anodes for SIBs (color online).
Figure 2
Crystal structures of cubic Si (a), cubic Ge (b), and tetragonal Sn (c) (color online).
Figure 3
Electrochemical tests of Si NP electrodes. (a) Capacity retention and Coulombic efficiency; (b) GITT desodiation/sodiation test (current pulses:
Figure 4
(a) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of Ge@G@TiO2 NFs and sodium ion storage behaviors of Ge@G@TiO2, Ge@G, and Ge composite electrodes; (b) cyclic voltammetry curves of Ge@G@TiO2 between 0.01 and
Figure 5
(a) Schematic illustration of the electrodeposition system for the synthesis of the Sn nanofibers; (b) cycle performance and Coulombic efficiency of the Sn nanofibers at a rate of
Figure 6
(a) Schematic illustration of ESD technique to fabricate a carbon-coated 3D porous interconnected SnS; (b) XRD pattern of such SnS/C nanocomposite and the inset SEM of carbon-coated 3D porous interconnected SnS; (c) the rate performance; (d) cycling performance and Coulombic efficiency at current density of
Figure 7
(a–d) Schematic illustration for the sodiation and desodiation. Yellow outlayer denotes carbon. (e) Cycling performance of the SnP3/C electrode at a current rate of
Item | Requirement |
Gravimetric capacity | ≥300 mA h g?1 |
Desodiation voltage | |
Initial Coulombic efficiency | ≥80% |
Cycle stability | 60% upon 500 cycles |
Rate performance | |
Low temperature at | 60% of capacity at room temperature |
High temperature at | 90% of capacity at room temperature |
Safety | Free of Na dendrite |
Cost | Close to graphite |
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